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The effects of neonicotinoid insecticides on honey bee foraging behaviour.
Most neonicotinoid insecticides have a low mammalian acute toxicity but have been shown to be highly toxic to the pollinators. The neonicotinoids are the most widely used insecticides in the world, and they are increasingly used to control pests in agriculture. This study investigated the foraging behaviour of honey bees in the presence of neonicotinoid insecticides (imidacloprid, thiamethoxam and clothianidin) using the olfactory assay. Thiamethoxam (1 ppb) and imidacloprid (10 ppb) reduced foraging activity for the first 3-h period of foraging, but this effect resolved after this time. Clothianidin (10 ppb) did not impair foraging. Interestingly, honey bees appear to compensate for poor early foraging by foraging for longer periods. Overall, the insecticides did not reduce the total number of trips made by bees. Thiamethoxam and imidacloprid suppressed the total number of flowers visited by bees. We suggest that the antifeedant properties of neonicotinoid insecticides may be due to a lack of stimulant or reward properties of flowers treated with these chemicals. The consequences of this lack of reward could be a loss in the efficiency of foraging, which would have important implications for the success of honey bee colonies.Energy storage in biological systems is quite complex and involves a series of different mechanisms in which energy, the primary fuel of life, is sequentially used and restored for its subsequent utilization. At the level of a molecular system, the energy is stored in form of hydrogen bonds in an individual molecule, and the energy, once released, is reutilized to transfer energy to the next molecule. On the cellular level, the energy is stored as chemical energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), a polymer of three phosphate groups that serve as a chemical energy store. During metabolism, the chemical energy stored in ATP is utilized and the energy is restored by the return of high-energy phosphate bonds to the low-energy state of the ATP molecule. At the tissue or organ level, the energy is stored in form of electrochemical potentials of the chemical energy
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